Water softening intercalation systems

ABSTRACT

A device for removing ions from a solution. The device includes first and second intercalation hosts, an anion exchange membrane, a first compartment extending between the first intercalation host and the anion exchange membrane, and a second compartment extending between the second intercalation host and the anion exchange membrane. The first and/or second intercalation hosts include a mixture of first and second intercalation materials. The first and/or second intercalation hosts may include layers (e.g., alternating layers) of the first and second intercalation materials. The first and second intercalation materials are different.

TECHNICAL FIELD

The present disclosure relates to water softening intercalation systems,for instance, intercalative water desalination (IDI) systems.

SUMMARY

According to one embodiment, a system for removing ions from a solutionis disclosed. The system includes an upstream device including first andsecond upstream intercalation hosts and an upstream anion exchangemembrane. The upstream device includes a first upstream compartmentextending between the first upstream intercalation host and the upstreamanion exchange membrane. The upstream device includes a second upstreamcompartment extending between the second upstream intercalation host andthe upstream anion exchange membrane. The first and/or second upstreamintercalation hosts include a first intercalation material configured topredominately intercalate a first type of cations from a solutionflowing through the first and/or second upstream compartments,respectively. The downstream device includes first and second downstreamintercalation hosts and a downstream anion exchange membrane. Thedownstream device includes a first downstream compartment extendingbetween the first downstream intercalation host and the downstream anionexchange membrane. The downstream device includes a second downstreamcompartment extending between the second downstream intercalation hostand the downstream anion exchange membrane. The first and/or seconddownstream intercalation hosts include a second intercalation materialconfigured to predominately intercalate a second type of cations fromthe solution flowing through the first and/or second downstreamcompartments, respectively. The first and second types of cations aredifferent.

According to another embodiment, a device for removing ions from asolution is disclosed. The device includes first and secondintercalation hosts, an anion exchange membrane, a first compartmentextending between the first intercalation host and the anion exchangemembrane, and a second compartment extending between the secondintercalation host and the anion exchange membrane. The firstintercalation host includes a first surface adjacent to the firstcompartment and a second surface opposing the first surface. The secondintercalation host includes a first surface adjacent to the secondcompartment and a second surface opposing the first surface. A number oflayers extend between the first and second surfaces of the first and/orsecond intercalation hosts. At least one of the number of layers isformed of at least a portion of a first intercalation material. At leastanother of the number of layers is formed of at least a portion of asecond intercalation material. The first and second intercalationmaterials are different. In one or more embodiments, the first or secondintercalation material has a first or second intercalation materialconcentration gradient.

According to yet another embodiment, a device for removing ions from asolution is disclosed. The device includes first and secondintercalation hosts, an anion exchange membrane, a first compartmentextending between the first intercalation host and the anion exchangemembrane, and a second compartment extending between the secondintercalation host and the anion exchange membrane. The first and/orsecond intercalation hosts include a mixture of first and secondintercalation materials. The first and second intercalation materialsare different.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 depicts a schematic diagram of a capacitive deionization (CDI)system.

FIGS. 2 a and 2 b depict a schematic diagram of an intercalativedesalination (IDI) system.

FIG. 3 depicts a schematic diagram of an example of a hybridelectrochemical desalination system.

FIG. 4 depicts a schematic diagram of a sequential intercalativedesalination (IDI) system.

FIG. 5 depicts a schematic diagram of an IDI device having intercalationhosts including a gradient including two or more host materials.

FIG. 6 depicts a schematic diagram of an IDI device having intercalationhosts including alternating layers of two or more host materials.

FIG. 7 depicts a schematic diagram of an IDI device having intercalationhosts including a mixture of two or more host materials.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Embodiments of the present disclosure are described herein. It is to beunderstood, however, that the disclosed embodiments are merely examplesand other embodiments can take various and alternative forms. Thefigures are not necessarily to scale; some features could be exaggeratedor minimized to show details of particular components. Therefore,specific structural and functional details disclosed herein are not tobe interpreted as limiting, but merely as a representative basis forteaching one skilled in the art to variously employ the embodiments. Asthose of ordinary skill in the art will understand, various featuresillustrated and described with reference to any one of the figures canbe combined with features illustrated in one or more other figures toproduce embodiments that are not explicitly illustrated or described.The combinations of features illustrated provide representativeembodiments for typical applications. Various combinations andmodifications of the features consistent with the teachings of thisdisclosure, however, could be desired for particular applications orimplementations.

Except in the examples, or where otherwise expressly indicated, allnumerical quantities in this description indicating amounts of materialor conditions of reaction and/or use are to be understood as modified bythe word “about” in describing the broadest scope of the invention.Practice within the numerical limits stated is generally preferred.Also, unless expressly stated to the contrary: percent, “parts of,” andratio values are by weight; the description of a group or class ofmaterials as suitable or preferred for a given purpose in connectionwith the invention implies that mixtures of any two or more of themembers of the group or class are equally suitable or preferred;description of constituents in chemical terms refers to the constituentsat the time of addition to any combination specified in the description,and does not necessarily preclude chemical interactions among theconstituents of a mixture once mixed.

The first definition of an acronym or other abbreviation applies to allsubsequent uses herein of the same abbreviation and applies mutatismutandis to normal grammatical variations of the initially definedabbreviation. Unless expressly stated to the contrary, measurement of aproperty is determined by the same technique as previously or laterreferenced for the same property.

It must also be noted that, as used in the specification and theappended claims, the singular form “a,” “an,” and “the” comprise pluralreferents unless the context clearly indicates otherwise. For example,reference to a component in the singular is intended to comprise aplurality of components.

As used herein, the term “substantially,” “generally,” or “about” meansthat the amount or value in question may be the specific valuedesignated or some other value in its neighborhood. These terms may beused to modify any numeric value disclosed or claimed herein. Generally,the term “about” denoting a certain value is intended to denote a rangewithin ±5% of the value. As one example, the phrase “about 100” denotesa range of 100±5, i.e. the range from 95 to 105. Generally, when theterm “about” is used, it can be expected that similar results or effectsaccording to the invention can be obtained within a range of ±5% of theindicated value. The term “substantially” may modify a value or relativecharacteristic disclosed or claimed in the present disclosure. In suchinstances, “substantially” may signify that the value or relativecharacteristic it modifies is within ±0%, 0.1%, 0.5%, 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%or 10% of the value or relative characteristic.

It should also be appreciated that integer ranges explicitly include allintervening integers. For example, the integer range 1 to 10 explicitlyincludes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10. Similarly, the range 1 to100 includes 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . 97, 98, 99, 100. Similarly, when anyrange is called for, intervening numbers that are increments of thedifference between the upper limit and the lower limit divided by 10 canbe taken as alternative upper or lower limits. For example, if the rangeis 1.1. to 2.1 the following numbers 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7, 1.8,1.9, and 2.0 can be selected as lower or upper limits.

In the examples set forth herein, concentrations, temperature, andreaction conditions (e.g., pressure, pH, flow rates, etc.) can bepracticed with plus or minus 50 percent of the values indicated roundedto or truncated to two significant figures of the value provided in theexamples. In a refinement, concentrations, temperature, and reactionconditions (e.g., pressure, pH, flow rates, etc.) can be practiced withplus or minus 30 percent of the values indicated rounded to or truncatedto two significant figures of the value provided in the examples. Inanother refinement, concentrations, temperature, and reaction conditions(e.g., pressure, pH, flow rates, etc.) can be practiced with plus orminus 10 percent of the values indicated rounded to or truncated to twosignificant figures of the value provided in the examples.

For all compounds expressed as an empirical chemical formula with aplurality of letters and numeric subscripts (e.g., CH₂O), values of thesubscripts can be plus or minus 50 percent of the values indicatedrounded to or truncated to two significant figures. For example, if CH₂Ois indicated, a compound of formulaC_((0.8-1.2))H_((1.6-2.4))O_((0.8-1.2)). In a refinement, values of thesubscripts can be plus or minus 30 percent of the values indicatedrounded to or truncated to two significant figures. In still anotherrefinement, values of the subscripts can be plus or minus 20 percent ofthe values indicated rounded to or truncated to two significant figures.

As used herein, the term “and/or” means that either all or only one ofthe elements of said group may be present. For example, “A and/or B”means “only A, or only B, or both A and B”. In the case of “only A”, theterm also covers the possibility that B is absent, i.e. “only A, but notB”.

It is also to be understood that this invention is not limited to thespecific embodiments and methods described below, as specific componentsand/or conditions may, of course, vary. Furthermore, the terminologyused herein is used only for the purpose of describing particularembodiments of the present invention and is not intended to be limitingin any way.

The term “comprising” is synonymous with “including,” “having,”“containing,” or “characterized by.” These terms are inclusive andopen-ended and do not exclude additional, unrecited elements or methodsteps.

The phrase “consisting of” excludes any element, step, or ingredient notspecified in the claim. When this phrase appears in a clause of the bodyof a claim, rather than immediately following the preamble, it limitsonly the element set forth in that clause; other elements are notexcluded from the claim as a whole.

The phrase “consisting essentially of” limits the scope of a claim tothe specified materials or steps, plus those that do not materiallyaffect the basic and novel characteristic(s) of the claimed subjectmatter.

With respect to the terms “comprising,” “consisting of” and “consistingessentially of,” where one of these three terms is used herein, thepresently disclosed and claimed subject matter can include the use ofeither of the other two terms.

The term “one or more” means “at least one” and the term “at least one”means “one or more.” The terms “one or more” and “at least one” include“plurality” as a subset.

The description of a group or class of materials as suitable for a givenpurpose in connection with one or more embodiments implies that mixturesof any two or more of the members of the group or class are suitable.Description of constituents in chemical terms refers to the constituentsat the time of addition to any combination specified in the descriptionand does not necessarily preclude chemical interactions amongconstituents of the mixture once mixed. First definition of an acronymor other abbreviation applies to all subsequent uses herein of the sameabbreviation and applies mutatis mutandis to normal grammaticalvariations of the initially defined abbreviation. Unless expresslystated to the contrary, measurement of a property is determined by thesame technique as previously or later referenced for the same property.

Water from traditionally safe sources such as municipal water sources orpotable water from wells may nonetheless possess qualities that are lessdesirable to the water consumer. For instance, water from potable watersources can vary significantly with respect to taste, odor, turbidity,bacterial and/or viral contamination, heavy metal contamination,hardness, mineral deposits, and/or a combination of these water qualityparameters. The quality parameter of water hardness relates to theconcentration of calcium ions (Ca²⁺) and/or magnesium ions (Mg²⁺)present in a given volume of water. Calcium and/or magnesium exist inpotable water in the form of salts, which are normally soluble in theform of sulfates, carbonates, bicarbonates, or chlorides. The solublesalts are often ionized so that the water contains a relatively highconcentration of calcium ions and/or magnesium ions.

Water is typically classified according to hardness as “soft water” or“hard water.” The harder the water, the greater the concentration ofcalcium and/or magnesium ions per volume. Hard water is typicallyundesirable because it can cause scale buildup in plumbing, fixtures,and appliances and may affect the performance these systems and devices.For instance, the heat from a hot water heater removes some calciumcarbonate and magnesium carbonate from the water, resulting in scalebuildup that can slow the heating process and increase energy usage.Cleaning agents used with hard water are often less effective. Clotheswashed in hard water may become dingy and gray with time and feel harshor scratchy. Glassware may become spotted as it dries. Films may be lefton shower doors or curtains, walls, and tubs, and hair washed in hardwater may look dull and not feel clean. The process of removing calciumions and/or magnesium ions from hard water is commonly referred to aswater softening.

Reverse osmosis and thermal distillation are two examples of systems forremoving ions from a solution. While both systems are very effective indesalinating saline solutions having high salinity, such as seawater,these systems are associated with relatively high costs and energyconsumption. The concentration of dissolved salts in a saline solutionhaving high salinity may be one of the following values or in the rangeof any two of the following values: 30,000; 31,000; 32,000; 33,000;34,000; 35,000; 36,000; 37,000; 38,000; 39,000; and 40,000 parts permillion. Desalination of saline solutions having lower salinity, such asbrackish water, may be accomplished by using electrochemicaldesalination systems, such as electrodialysis systems or capacitivedeionization systems. These systems may treat a saline solution bypartial removal of one or more types of ions from a saline solutionstream. The concentration of dissolved salts in a saline solution havinglower salinity may be one of the following values or in a range of anytwo of the following values: 1, 500; 2,000; 3,000; 4,000; 5,000; 6,000;7,000; 8,000; 9,000; 10,000; 11,000; 12,000; 13,000; 14,000; and 15,000parts per million.

A more recent proposal for an electrochemical desalination system fordesalinating a lower salinity solution, such as brackish water, uses aflow-through desalination battery cell configured to intercalate one ormore types of ions into a host structure. This type of electrochemicaldesalination system may be referred to as intercalative waterdesalination (IDI) system. An DI system may have one or more benefitsover electro-adsorption-based electrochemical desalination systems, suchas capacitive deionization (CDI) systems, which rely on high surfacearea electrodes. The surface area of the electrode may be any of thefollowing values or in a range of any two of the following values: 400,450, 500, 550, 600, 650, 700, 750, 800, 850, 900, 950, 1,000, 1,050 and1,110 m²/g. For instance, electrodes of an IDI system generally havehigher available capacities for desalination of lower salinitysolutions. These higher available capacities may improve efficiencyand/or lower wear on the electrodes. As another example, since IDIsystems do not rely on high surface area electrodes to achieverelatively high capacity, IDI systems may be less susceptible to foulingthan the electrodes in a typical CDI system. Also, intercalationcompounds may selectively remove specific types of targeted ions from asolution stream, which is advantageous when the solution meets most butnot all quality criteria for a given application.

CDI systems include carbon-based electrodes configured to adsorb ions.Activated carbon materials may be used as substrates to build up anelectrochemical double layer when an electric potential is applied. Asaline solution stream flowing between a pair of carbon-based electrodescan be desalinated by reducing the number of ions in the solutionstream. Upon reversal of the potential between the pair of electrodes orby shorting the circuit creating the electric potential, adsorbed ionsare configured to release into a brine solution having a highconcentration of dissolved salts through ion desorption.

FIG. 1 depicts a schematic diagram of capacitive deionization (CDI)system 10. CDI system 10 includes first carbon-based electrode 12,second carbon-based electrode 14, and compartment 16 extendingtherebetween. First and/or second carbon-based electrodes 12 and 14 maybe formed of active carbon, mesoporous carbon, hierarchically porouscarbon, carbon nanotubes, graphene, carbon aerogel, and combinationsthereof. Channel 16 includes inlet 18 configured to inlet a salinesolution, as depicted by arrow 20. The saline solution may be brackishwater or seawater. Force is applied to the saline solution so that itflows from inlet 18 to outlet 22 through compartment 16. The force maybe applied by a pump.

As shown in FIG. 1 , a power source through circuit 24 applies a currentto generate a potential between first carbon-based electrode 12 andsecond carbon-based electrode 14 such that first carbon-based electrode12 has a positive charge and second carbon-based electrode 14 has anegative charge. As the saline solution flows through compartment 16,anions 26 (e.g., Cl⁻) are attracted to and adsorbed on firstcarbon-based electrode 12 as depicted by arrow 28 and cations 30 (e.g.,Na⁺) are attracted to and adsorbed on second carbon-based electrode 14as depicted by arrow 32. First and/or second carbon-based electrodes 12and 14 may have a high-surface area to maximize the number of ions thatare adsorbed. The surface area of the electrode may be any of thefollowing values or in a range of any two of the following values: 400,450, 500, 550, 600, 650, 700, 750, 800, 850, 900, 950, 1,000, 1,050 and1,110 m²/g. By the time that the saline solution exits from outlet 22,the salinity of the solution is greatly reduced such that a freshsolution exits outlet 22 as depicted by arrow 34. The fresh solution maybe a desalinated freshwater solution created from brackish water. Upon apolarity switch to circuit 24, adsorbed ion species are released backinto the stream of the salinity solution, thereby creating a highlyconcentrated brine solution.

An IDI system may be configured to simultaneously process of first andsecond saline solutions streams, such as first and second brackish waterstreams, to produce a diluted solution stream and a concentratedsolution stream. FIGS. 2A and 2B depict a schematic diagram of IDIsystem 50. An IDI system includes first and second intercalationelectrodes. First and second intercalation hosts 53 and 57 may operatein a substantially filled state or a substantially empty state. In thesubstantially filled state, the intercalation host is substantiallyfilled with cations (e.g., Na⁺). In the substantially empty state, theintercalation host is substantially empty of cations. In one or moreembodiments, first and second intercalation hosts 53 and 57 may bepartially filled at an initial state. For example, first and/or secondintercalation hosts 53 and/or 57 may be at a 50% state of charge (e.g.50% of the capacity is filled with cations).

First and second intercalation electrodes 52 and 54 are separated byanion exchange membrane 56. As a potential is applied to the first andsecond intercalation electrodes, cations from the substantially filledside are desorbed to create a brine solution stream, while cations inthe adjacent compartment including the substantially empty electrode areremoved from the feed solution by intercalating into the substantiallyempty electrode.

First intercalation electrode 52 includes first substrate 51 and firstintercalation host 53 is applied to first substrate 51. Secondintercalation electrode 54 includes second substrate 55 and secondintercalation host 57 applied to second substrate 55. In one or moreembodiments, an ion-selective membrane or an anion exchange member isplaced between the surface of first and/or second intercalationelectrodes 52 and 54 and the saline solution. This configuration permitsreleased cations to recombine with anions from the opposite cellcompartment. A water-permeable separator (not shown) may be used toprevent electrical contact between the first and second intercalationelectrodes 52 and 54.

First compartment 58 is formed between first intercalation electrode 52and anion exchange membrane 56. Second compartment 60 is formed betweensecond intercalation electrode 54 and anion exchange membrane 56. Asdepicted by arrow 62, a first saline solution is fed into firstcompartment 58. As depicted by arrow 64, a second saline solution is fedinto second compartment 60. The first and/or second saline solutions maybe brackish water.

First and second intercalation electrodes 52 and 54 each have a state ofcharge (SOC) that changes continuously during operation. For example,first intercalation electrode 52 may start at 100% SOC and secondintercalation electrode 54 at 0% SOC. As system 50 is operated, the SOCof first intercalation electrode 52 drops from 100% to 0% while the SOCof second intercalation electrode 54 rises from 0% to 100%. At the endof this “half cycle,” the current (or voltage) is flipped and the cellruns in reverse, while being coordinated with the switching of valves,at least at the final outlets of system 50, such that the waste (brine)and purified streams continue to be provided as needed in system 50.

FIG. 2A depicts a first half-cycle operation of IDI system 50 and FIG.2B depicts a second half-cycle operation of DI system 50. At thebeginning of the first half-cycle operation, first intercalationelectrode 52 is substantially empty and second intercalation electrode54 is substantially full. During the first half-cycle operation, a powersource through circuit 68 applies a current to generate an electricpotential between first intercalation electrode 52 and secondintercalation electrode 54 such that first intercalation electrode 52has a positive charge and second intercalation electrode 54 has anegative charge. FIG. 2A shows a state in which cations 70 were releasedfrom first intercalation electrode 52 into first compartment 58, whilecations 70 in second compartment 60 were intercalated into secondintercalation electrode 54. During each half-cycle operation, anions 72cross anion exchange membrane 56 to recombine with cations 70 releasedfrom one of first and second intercalation electrodes 52 and 54. IDIsystem 50 is configured to supply a continuous stream of freshwater.When a saline solution (e.g., brackish water) is flowed through DIsystem 50 and a current is applied by a power source through circuit 68,Ca²⁺ and/or Mg²⁺ ions are intercalated into first or secondintercalation hosts 53 or 57, and anions (e.g., Cl⁻ and CO₃ ²⁻) areaccumulated in the opposite first or second compartment 58 or 60 bytransporting through anion exchange membrane 56. The outlet solutionfrom one of first or second compartment 58 or 60 is softened (e.g.,contains a lower concentration of Ca²⁺ and/or Mg²⁺) while the other offirst and second compartment 58 and 60 is enriched in salinity and isconsidered a wastewater stream.

The usage of intercalation electrodes in IDI systems has been limited bythe poor availability of materials that (a) intercalate only ions ofrelevance, most notably Na⁺, (b) have sufficient capacities in thepotential window provided by aqueous electrolyte, and (c) are non-toxic,and/or (b) have appropriate cycle life to purify a reasonable amount ofwater. With the increasing interest and application of sodium-ionbatteries for energy-storage applications, significant progress has beenmade on sodium-ion intercalating cathode materials. The resultingmaterials also present a great potential for the application to thespace of IDI systems. However, the utilization of this technology tomunicipal water desalination applications of brackish water is stilllimited because municipal water contains greater than optimalconcentrations of Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺ ions and a variety of materialsconfigured to intercalate divalent ions is not known. The greater thanoptimal concentrations of divalent ions may be any of the followingvalues or in a range of any two of the following values: 170, 175, 180,185, 190, 195, 200, 205, 210, 215, 220, 225, and 230 parts per million.Selective ion extraction via an IDI system may be the most energyefficient in an area of municipal hard water desalination with theselevels of divalent ions. Accordingly, there is a need for intercalationhosts suitable for water softening, including the removal of divalentcations, such as Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺, where the intercalation hosts have arelatively long lifetime, low voltage, reasonable capacity, and/ornon-toxic and are highly selective for the intercalation of divalentcations.

Systems for softening municipal water using Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺ intercalationhosts and their limitations have not been adequately investigated.Current water softening systems primarily rely on ion-exchange membranesystems. One or more benefits of using intercalation hosts overion-exchange systems include, without limitation, (1) intercalationhosts do not require use and replacement of a consumable reagent, suchas NaOH or NaCl, and (2) ion-exchange systems may add a salt burden towaste streams that can be difficult to treat (and therefore, somemunicipalities have banned their use).

In light of the foregoing, one or more embodiments disclose binary andternary intercalation materials suitable for use as intercalation hostsin a water softening system. In one or more embodiments, theintercalation material includes a binary transition metal Prussian blueanalogue where the transition metal is nickel and/or copper for example.

In one embodiment, a water-softening device includes one or moreelectrodes including an intercalation host compound. The intercalationhost compound may be a binary transition metal Prussian blue analoguehaving the following general formula: A_(x)B_(y)C_(z)[Fe(CN)₆], whereA=Li, Na, or K; B=Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, or Zn; C=Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, or Zn; 0≤x≤1;0≤y≤1; and 0≤z≤1. Examples of binary transition metal Prussian blueanalogues include, but are not limited to, A_(x)Ni_(y)Ni_(z)[Fe(CN)₆],A_(x)Cu_(y)Ni_(z)[Fe(CN)₆], A_(x)Mn_(y)Ni_(z)[Fe(CN)₆],A_(x)Fe_(y)Ni_(z)[Fe(CN)₆], A_(x)Zn_(y)Ni_(z)[Fe(CN)₆],A_(x)Cu_(y)Cu_(z)[Fe(CN)₆], A_(x)Mn_(y)Cu_(z)[Fe(CN)₆],A_(x)Fe_(y)Cu_(z)[Fe(CN)₆], A_(x)Zn_(y)Cu_(z)[Fe(CN)₆],A_(x)Mn_(y)Mn_(z)[Fe(CN)₆], A_(x)Fe_(y)Mn_(z)[Fe(CN)₆],A_(x)Zn_(y)Mn_(z)[Fe(CN)₆], A_(x)Fe_(y)Fe_(z)[Fe(CN)₆],A_(x)Zn_(y)Fe_(z)[Fe(CN)₆], and A_(x)Zn_(y)Zn_(z)[Fe(CN)₆], where A=Li,Na, or K; 0≤x≤1; 0≤y≤1; and 0≤z≤1. The intercalation host compound maybe a ternary transition metal Prussian blue analogue having thefollowing general formula: A_(x)B_(y)C_(z)D_(w)[Fe(CN)₆], where A=Li,Na, or K; B=Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, or Zn; C=Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, or Zn; D=Mn, Fe,Ni, Cu, or Zn; 0≤x≤1; 0≤y≤1; 0≤z≤1; 0≤w≤1.

In one embodiment, the intercalation electrode may be comprised of amixture of an intercalation compound, a carbon additive, and a polymericbinder. The carbon additive is configured to provide electricalconductivity. The weight percent of the intercalation compound in theintercalation electrode may be any of the following values or in a rangeof any two of the following values: 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68,69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86,87, 88, 89, and 90 weight percent. The weight percent of the carbonadditive in the intercalation electrode may be any of the followingvalues or in a range of any two of the following values: 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,8, 9, and 10 weight percent. The weight percent of the polymeric binderin the intercalation electrode may be any of the following values or ina range of any two of the following values: 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12,13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30,31, 32, 33, 34, and 35 weight percent. The polymeric binder may bepolyvinylidene di-fluoride (PVDF).

The intercalation compound, carbon additive, and polymeric binder can bemixed to form a slurry in a solvent. The slurry can be applied to asubstrate to form the intercalation electrode. The substrate may beformed of metal, carbon cloth, or graphene sheets. The applicationprocess may include blade-casting, roll casting, and/or airbrushing.

In one embodiment, the intercalation electrode may be used as firstand/or second intercalation electrodes 52 and/or 54 as shown in FIGS. 2Aand 2B. When a saline solution (e.g., brackish water) is flowed throughIDI system 50 and a current is applied by a power source through circuit68, Ca²⁺ and/or Mg²⁺ ions are intercalated into first or secondintercalation hosts 53 or 57, and anions (e.g., Cl⁻ and CO₃ ²⁻) areaccumulated in the opposite first or second compartment 58 or 60 bytransporting through anion exchange membrane 56. The outlet solutionfrom one of first or second compartment 58 or 60 is softened (e.g.,contains a lower concentration of Ca²⁺ and/or Mg²⁺) while the other offirst and second compartment 58 and 60 is enriched in salinity and isconsidered a wastewater stream. When the polarity of first and secondintercalation electrodes 52 and 54 are switched by switching thedirection of the current through circuit 68, intercalated ions arereleased back into the wastewater stream along with anions that crossanion exchange membrane 56 on the opposing side in which cations are nowintercalating.

In one or more embodiments, an intercalation electrode is paired with ahigh surface-area carbon counter-electrode. In one or more embodiments,ion-selective membranes are placed between the electrode surface and thesolution to improve co-ion adsorption. FIG. 3 depicts a schematicdiagram of hybrid electrochemical desalination system 100. Hybridelectrochemical desalination system 100 includes anion exchange membrane102 in a layer-to-layer configuration with carbon-based electrode 104.Anion exchange membrane 102 may contact carbon-based electrode 104.Hybrid electrochemical desalination system 100 includes cation exchangemembrane 106 in a layer-to-layer configuration with intercalation host108. Cation exchange membrane 106 may contact intercalation host 108.Compartment 110 is formed between spaced apart anion exchange membrane102 and cation exchange membrane 106. Hybrid electrochemicaldesalination system 100 may be configured to desalinate and soften asaline solution based on a combination of ion intercalation andelectro-adsorption.

Compartment 110 includes inlet 112 configured to inlet a salinesolution, as depicted by arrow 114. The saline solution may be brackishwater or seawater. Force is applied to the saline solution so that itflows from inlet 112 to outlet 116 through compartment 110, as depictedby arrow 122. Cations 118 within the feed saline solution stream areremoved through intercalation, while anions 120 are adsorbed oncarbon-based electrode 104. Anion exchange membrane 102 is configured toincrease efficiency by decreasing co-ion adsorption (e.g., co-ionadsorption on carbon-based electrode 104). The saline solution is onlydesalinated during one half-cycle due to the non-symmetric nature ofhybrid electrochemical desalination system 100.

In another embodiment, one or more of the binary or ternary transitionmetal Prussian blue analogue intercalation host materials disclosedherein may be used in a first intercalation host of a firstintercalation electrode. The other electrode may include or be formed ofAg/AgCl, BiOCl, or a combination thereof, or other materials configuredto reversibly react with chloride ions. The other electrode may notinclude any of the binary or ternary transition metal Prussian blueanalogue intercalation host materials disclosed herein. The otherelectrode may not include an intercalation host (e.g., hybridelectrochemical desalination system 100).

First and/or second intercalation hosts 53 and/or 57 may include aPrussian blue analogue. As disclosed in one or more embodiments, binaryand ternary transition metal Prussian blue analogues may be usedbeneficially in IDI systems. These materials may have one or more of thefollowing benefits: (1) relatively longer life cycles; (2) affinitytoward intercalation of divalent ions; (3) capability to intercalateunder higher current rates; and (4) more efficient during theintercalation process.

The Prussian blue analogues may be used in a combination of two or moreIDI devices arranged sequentially to improve performance and/or salinityreduction rates. In one embodiment, a first IDI device is configured topredominantly remove monovalent ions such as Na⁺ and a second DI deviceis configured to predominantly remove divalent ions such as Ca²⁺.

FIG. 4 depicts sequential intercalative desalination (IDI) system 150according to one embodiment. Sequential IDI system 150 includes upstreamIDI device 152 and downstream IDI device 154. Inlet stream 156 of salinesolution (e.g., seawater or brackish water) is fed into valve 158. Valve158 is configured to create first and second streams 160 and 162, whichare fed into upstream DI device 152. Upstream IDI device 152 includesfirst and second intercalation hosts 164 and 166 and anion exchangemembrane 168. First and/or second intercalation hosts 164 and/or 166 maybe supported on first and/or second substrates, respectively. Firstcompartment 170 is formed between first intercalation host 164 and anionexchange membrane 168. Second compartment 172 is formed between secondintercalation host 166 and anion exchange membrane 168. First stream 160flows through first compartment 170 and second stream 162 flows throughsecond compartment 172.

First and second intercalation hosts 164 and 166 may operate in asubstantially filled state, a partially filled state, or a substantiallyempty state. In the substantially filled state, the intercalation hostis substantially filled with cations (e.g., Na⁺). For instance, thepercentage of the volumetric capacity of the intercalation host filledwith cations in the substantially filled state may be any of thefollowing values or in a range of any two of the following values: 90%,91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.5%, and 100%. In thepartially filled state, the intercalation host is partially filled withcations. The percentage of the volumetric capacity of the intercalationhost filled with cations in the partially filled state may be any of thefollowing values or in arrange of any two of the following values: 40%,41%, 42%, 43%, 44%, 45%, 46%, 47%, 48%, 49%, 50%, 51%, 52%, 53%, 54%,55%, 56%, 57%, 58%, 59%, and 60%. In the substantially empty state, theintercalation host is substantially empty of cations. In thesubstantially empty state, the percentage of the volumetric capacity ofthe intercalation host filled with cations in the substantially emptystate may be any of the following values or in arrange of any two of thefollowing values: 0%, 0.1%, 0.5%, 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%,and 10%.

As shown in FIG. 4 , first intercalation host 164 is substantially orpartially filled with cations and second intercalation host 166 issubstantially empty of cations. In one embodiment, the cations aremonovalent cations (e.g., Na⁺). During operation of upstream IDI device152, power source 174 applies current through circuit 176 to generate anelectric potential between first intercalation host 164 and secondintercalation host 166 such that first intercalation host 164 has apositive charge and second intercalation host 166 has a negative charge.As shown in FIG. 4 , upstream cations 178 are released from firstintercalation host 164 into first compartment 170 and other upstreamcations 178 from second compartment 172 intercalate into secondintercalation host 166, and upstream anions 180 (e.g., Cl⁻) migrate fromsecond compartment 172 across anion exchange membrane 168 into firstcompartment 170, thereby forming upstream brine solution 182 in firstcompartment 170 and upstream fresh solution 184 in second compartment172.

In one embodiment, first and/or second intercalation hosts 164 and/or166 are configured to predominately intercalate monovalent ions. Forinstance, predominately may mean that the percentage of monovalent ions(e.g., monovalent cations such as Na⁺) intercalated to the total ionsintercalated (e.g., total cations) based on total capacity of theintercalation host may be any of the following values or in a range ofany two of the following values: 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%,98%, 99%, 99.5%, 99.6%, 99.7%, 99.8%, 99.9%, and 100%.

Upstream brine solution 182 is configured to flow through first conduit186 into downstream IDI device 154 and upstream fresh solution stream184 is configured to flow through second conduit 188 into downstream IDIdevice 154. Downstream IDI device 154 includes first and secondintercalation hosts 190 and 192 and anion exchange membrane 194. Firstand/or second intercalation hosts 190 and/or 192 may be supported onfirst and/or second substrates, respectively. First compartment 196 isformed between first intercalation host 190 and anion exchange membrane194. Second compartment 198 is formed between second intercalation host192 and anion exchange membrane 194. First stream 200 flows throughfirst compartment 196 and second stream 202 flows through secondcompartment 198.

First and second intercalation hosts 190 and 192 may operate in asubstantially filled state, a partially filled state, or a substantiallyempty state. In the substantially filled state, the intercalation hostis substantially filled with cations. For instance, the percentage ofthe volumetric capacity of the intercalation host filled with cations inthe substantially filled state may be any of the following values or ina range of any two of the following values: 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%,95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.5%, and 100%. In the partially filled state,the intercalation host is partially filled with cations. The percentageof the volumetric capacity of the intercalation host filled with cationsin the partially filled state may be any of the following values or inarrange of any two of the following values: 40%, 41%, 42%, 43%, 44%,45%, 46%, 47%, 48%, 49%, 50%, 51%, 52%, 53%, 54%, 55%, 56%, 57%, 58%,59%, and 60%. In the substantially empty state, the intercalation hostis substantially empty of cations. In the substantially empty state, thepercentage of the volumetric capacity of the intercalation host filledwith cations in the substantially empty state may be any of thefollowing values or in arrange of any two of the following values: 0%,0.1%, 0.5%, 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, and 10%.

As shown in FIG. 4 , first intercalation host 190 is substantially orpartially filled with cations and second intercalation host 192 issubstantially empty of cations. In one embodiment, the cations aredivalent cations (e.g. Ca²⁺). During operation of downstream IDI device154, power source 174 applies current through circuit 176 to generate anelectric potential between first intercalation host 190 and secondintercalation host 192 such that first intercalation host 190 has apositive charge and second intercalation host 192 has a negative charge.As shown in FIG. 4 , downstream cations 204 are released from firstintercalation host 190 and other downstream cations 204 from secondcompartment 198 intercalate into second intercalation host 192, anddownstream anions 206 (e.g., CO₃ ²⁻ and/or Cl⁻) migrate from secondcompartment 198 across anion exchange membrane 194 into firstcompartment 196, thereby forming downstream brine solution 208 in firstcompartment 196 and downstream fresh solution stream 210 in secondcompartment 198. Downstream brine solution 208 may have a greatersalinity than upstream brine solution 182. Downstream fresh solutionstream 210 may have a lower salinity than upstream fresh solution stream184.

In one embodiment, first and/or second intercalation hosts 190 and/or192 are configured to predominately intercalate divalent ions. Forinstance, predominately may mean that the percentage of divalent ions(e.g., divalent cations such as Ca²⁺ and/or Mg²⁺) intercalated to thetotal ions intercalated (e.g., total cations) based on total capacity ofthe intercalation host may be any of the following values or in a rangeof any two of the following values: 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%,85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.5%, 99.6%,99.7%, 99.8%, 99.9%, and 100%.

Downstream brine solution 208 is configured to flow into valve 214 anddownstream fresh solution 210 is configured to flow into valve 218.Valve 214 may be configured to separate downstream brine solution 208into brine solution stream 220 and fresh solution stream 222. Brinesolution stream 220 flows into valve 226. Valve 218 may be configured toseparate downstream fresh solution 210 into brine solution stream 228and fresh solution stream 230. Brine solution stream 228 flows valve226. Fresh solution stream 230 flows into valve 236. Fresh solutionstream 222 flows into valve 236. Brine solution stream 240 exits valve226 through conduit 242. Fresh solution stream 244 exits valve 236through conduit 246.

As shown in FIG. 4 , upstream IDI device 152 is optimized for removal ofmonovalent cations and downstream IDI device 154 is optimized forremoval of divalent cations. In another embodiment, the upstream IDIdevice may be optimized for removal of divalent cations and thedownstream IDI device may be optimized for removal of monovalentcations. Optimization of removal of different types of cations may beaccomplished by varying the host material, thickness, porosity, and/ortortuosity between intercalation hosts.

While FIG. 4 depicts two IDI devices (i.e., upstream IDI device 152 anddownstream IDI device 154), in other embodiments more than twosequential IDI devices may be utilized to further optimizing the removalof certain types of cations. For example, first, second, third, andfourth sequential DI devices can be utilized such that the first IDIdevice is furthest upstream and the fourth IDI device is furthestdownstream. Each of the first, second, third, and fourth sequential IDIdevices may or may not be optimized to predominantly remove a differenttype of cation (e.g., Na⁺, K⁺, Ca²⁺, and Mg²⁺), two or more DIcompartments may be put in a series to increase the amount of saltremoved.

) FIG. 5 depicts intercalative desalination (IDI) system 250 accordingto one embodiment. Inlet stream 252 of saline solution (e.g., seawateror brackish water) is fed into valve 254. Valve 254 is configured tocreate first and second streams 256 and 258, which are fed into IDIsystem 250. IDI system 250 includes first and second intercalation hosts260 and 262 and anion exchange membrane 264. First and/or secondintercalation hosts 260 and/or 262 may be supported on first and/orsecond substrates, respectively. First compartment 266 is formed betweensecond intercalation host 262 and anion exchange membrane 264. Secondcompartment 268 is formed between second intercalation host 262 andanion exchange membrane 264. First stream 256 flows through firstcompartment 266 and second stream 258 flows through second compartment268.

First and second intercalation hosts 260 and 262 may operate in asubstantially filled state, a partially filled state, or a substantiallyempty state. In the substantially filled state, the intercalation hostis substantially filled with cations (e.g., Na⁺). For instance, thepercentage of the volumetric capacity of the intercalation host filledwith cations in the substantially filled state may be any of thefollowing values or in a range of any two of the following values: 90%,91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.5%, and 100%. In thepartially filled state, the intercalation host is partially filled withcations. The percentage of the volumetric capacity of the intercalationhost filled with cations in the partially filled state may be any of thefollowing values or in arrange of any two of the following values: 40%,41%, 42%, 43%, 44%, 45%, 46%, 47%, 48%, 49%, 50%, 51%, 52%, 53%, 54%,55%, 56%, 57%, 58%, 59%, and 60%. In the substantially empty state, theintercalation host is substantially empty of cations. In thesubstantially empty state, the percentage of the volumetric capacity ofthe intercalation host filled with cations in the substantially emptystate may be any of the following values or in arrange of any two of thefollowing values: 0%, 0.1%, 0.5%, 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%,and 10%.

One or both of first and second intercalation hosts 260 and 262 may havea host material gradient formed of two or more host materials. Forinstance, the concentration of host material in first and/or secondintercalation hosts 260 and/or 262 may increase or decrease through thethickness of first and/or second intercalation hosts 260 and/or 262toward first and/or second compartment 266 and/or 268. In one or moreembodiments, the increase or decrease in the concentration may belinear, nonlinear, exponential, constant, stepwise, or a combinationthereof.

First intercalation host 260 includes first surface 270 adjacent tofirst compartment 266 and second surface 272 opposing first surface 270.Second intercalation host 262 includes first surface 274 adjacent tosecond compartment 268 and second surface 276 opposing first surface274. One or more layers closer to first surface 274 than second surface276 are formed from a first host material configured to predominatelyintercalate monovalent cations. One or more layers closer to secondsurface 276 than first surface 274 are formed from a second hostmaterial configured to predominately intercalate divalent cations. Theinnermost layers of the first and second host materials may contact eachother. This layering structure may also be applied to firstintercalation host 260. The total thickness of the one or more layersformed from the first host material may be half the total thickness ofthe intercalation host measured between the first and second surfaces.The total thickness of the one or more layers formed from the secondhost material may be half the total thickness of the intercalation host.Each of the layers may have a gradient in the concentration of hostmaterial. The ratio of the total thickness of the one or more layersformed from the first host material to the total thickness of the one ormore layers formed from the second host material may be any of thefollowing values or in a range of any two of the following values: 3:1,2.5:1, 2:1, 1.5:1, 1:1, 1:1.5, 1:2, 1:2.5, and 1:3. In anotherembodiment, the first host material is configured to predominantlyremove divalent cations and the second host material is configured topredominantly remove monovalent cations.

As shown in FIG. 5 , first intercalation host 260 is substantially orpartially filled with cations and second intercalation host 262 issubstantially empty of cations. In one embodiment, first intercalationhost 260 includes monovalent cations 278 intercalated into the one ormore layers of the first host material and divalent cations 280intercalated into the one or more layers of the second host material.During operation of IDI system 250, power source 282 applied currentthrough circuit 284 to generate an electric potential between firstintercalation host 260 and second intercalation host 262 such that firstintercalation host 260 has a positive charge and second intercalationhost 262 has a negative charge. As shown in FIG. 5 , monovalent anddivalent cations 278 and 280 are released from first intercalation host260 into first compartment 266 and monovalent and divalent cations 278and 280 from second compartment 268 intercalate into secondintercalation host 262, and monovalent and divalent anions 286 and 288migrate from second compartment 268 across anion exchange membrane 264into first compartment 266, thereby forming brine solution 290 in firstcompartment 266 and fresh solution 292 in second compartment 268.

Brine solution 290 is configured to flow through conduit 294 into valve296 and fresh solution 292 is configured to flow through conduit 298into valve 300. Valve 296 may be configured to separate brine solution290 into brine solution stream 302 and fresh solution stream 304. Brinesolution stream 302 flows into valve 310. Valve 300 may be configured toseparate fresh solution 292 into brine solution stream 306 and freshsolution stream 308. Brine solution stream 306 flows into valve 310.Fresh solution stream 308 flows into valve 312. Fresh solution stream304 flows into valve 312. Brine solution stream 314 exits valve 310.Fresh solution steam 316 exits valve 312.

As shown in FIG. 5 , the one or more layers closest to the surface ofthe intercalation host are configured to predominantly remove monovalentcations with a first host material and the one or more layers closest tothe opposing surface are configured to predominantly remove divalentcations with a second host material. In another embodiment, the one ormore layers closest to the surface of the intercalation host areconfigured to predominantly remove divalent cations with a first hostmaterial and the one or more layers closest to the opposing surface areconfigured to predominantly remove monovalent cations with a second hostmaterial. Optimization of removal of different types of cations may beaccomplished by varying the thickness, porosity, and/or tortuositywithin intercalation hosts.

While FIG. 5 depicts a single IDI device, in other embodiments more thanone IDI device may be utilized to further optimize the remove of certaintypes of cations. For example, first and second DI devices can beutilized such that the first IDI device is upstream, and the second IDIdevice is downstream. The first IDI device may be configured to haveintercalation hosts of two or more layers (e.g., one or more layers of afirst host material configured to predominantly intercalate a firstcation and one or more layers of a second host material configured topredominantly intercalate a second cation). The second IDI device may beconfigured to have intercalation hosts of two or more layers (e.g., oneor more layers of a third host material configured to predominantlyintercalate a third cation and one or more layers of a fourth hostmaterial configured to predominantly intercalate a fourth cation).

FIG. 6 depicts intercalative desalination (IDI) system 350 according toone embodiment. Inlet stream 352 of saline solution (e.g., seawater orbrackish water) is fed into valve 354. Valve 354 is configured to createfirst and second streams 356 and 358, which are fed into IDI system 350.IDI system 350 includes first and second intercalation hosts 360 and 362and anion exchange membrane 364. First and/or second intercalation hosts360 and/or 362 may be supported on first and/or second substrates,respectively. First compartment 366 is formed between firstintercalation host 360 and anion exchange membrane 364. Secondcompartment 368 is formed between second intercalation host 362 andanion exchange membrane 364. First stream 356 flows through firstcompartment 366 and second stream 358 flows through second compartment368.

First and second intercalation hosts 360 and 362 may operate in asubstantially filled state, a partially filled state, or a substantiallyempty state. In the substantially filled state, the intercalation hostis substantially filled with cations. For instance, the percentage ofthe volumetric capacity of the intercalation host filled with cations inthe substantially filled state may be any of the following values or ina range of any two of the following values: 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%,95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.5%, and 100%. In the partially filled state,the intercalation host is partially filled with cations. The percentageof the volumetric capacity of the intercalation host filled with cationsin the partially filled state may be any of the following values or inarrange of any two of the following values: 40%, 41%, 42%, 43%, 44%,45%, 46%, 47%, 48%, 49%, 50%, 51%, 52%, 53%, 54%, 55%, 56%, 57%, 58%,59%, and 60%. In the substantially empty state, the intercalation hostis substantially empty of cations. In the substantially empty state, thepercentage of the volumetric capacity of the intercalation host filledwith cations in the substantially empty state may be any of thefollowing values or in arrange of any two of the following values: 0%,0.1%, 0.5%, 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, and 10%.

One or both of first and second intercalation hosts 360 and 362 may havetwo or more layers, where each of layers is formed of the same ordifferent host material. As shown in FIG. 6 , each of first and secondintercalation hosts 360 and 362 have layers formed of alternating hostmaterials. First intercalation host 360 includes first surface 370adjacent to first compartment 366 and second surface 372 opposing firstsurface 370. First, second, third, and fourth layers extend betweenfirst and second surfaces 370 and 372 of first intercalation host 360.Second intercalation host 362 includes first surface 374 adjacent tosecond compartment 368 and second surface 376 opposing first surface374. First, second, third, and fourth layers extend between first andsecond surfaces 374 and 376 of second intercalation host 362. In oneembodiment, the first and third layers of first and/or secondintercalation hosts 360 and/or 362 are formed from a first host materialconfigured to predominately intercalate monovalent cations, and thesecond and fourth layers of the first and/or second intercalation hosts360 and/or 362 are formed from a second host material configured topredominately intercalate divalent cations. The total thickness of eachof the first, second, third, and fourth layers may be one fourth thetotal thickness of the intercalation host measured between the first andsecond surfaces. The total thickness of each of the layers may vary. Inanother embodiment, the first host material is configured topredominantly remove divalent cations and the second host material isconfigured to predominantly remove monovalent cations.

As shown in FIG. 6 , first intercalation host 360 is substantial orpartially filled with cations and second intercalation host 362 issubstantially empty of cations. In one embodiment, first intercalationhost 360 includes monovalent cations 378 intercalated into the one ormore layers of the first host material and divalent cations 380intercalated into the one or more layers of the second host material.During operation of IDI system 350, power source 382 applies currentthrough circuit 384 to generate an electric potential between firstintercalation host 360 and second intercalation host 362 such that firstintercalation host 360 has a positive charge and second intercalationhost 362 has a negative charge. As shown in FIG. 6 , monovalent anddivalent cations 378 and 380 are released from first intercalation host360 into first compartment 366 and monovalent and divalent cations 378and 380 from second compartment 368 intercalate into secondintercalation host 362, and monovalent and divalent anions 386 and 388migrate from second compartment 368 across anion exchange membrane 364into first compartment 366, thereby forming brine solution 390 in firstcompartment 366 and fresh solution 392 in second compartment 368.

Brine solution 390 is configured to flow through conduit 394 into valve396 and fresh solution 392 is configured to flow through conduit 398into valve 400. Valve 396 may be configured to separate brine solution390 into brine solution stream 402 and fresh solution stream 404. Brinesolution stream 402 flows into valve 410. Valve 400 may be configured toseparate fresh solution 392 into brine solution stream 406 and freshsolution stream 408. Brine solution stream 406 flows into valve 410.Fresh solution stream 408 flows into valve 412. Fresh solution stream404 flows into valve 412. Brine solution stream 414 exits valve 410.Fresh solution steam 416 exits valve 412.

As shown in FIG. 6 , alternating layers of first and second hostmaterials are shown. In another embodiment, alternating layers of morethan two host materials may be used. For example, alternating layers offirst, second, third, and fourth host materials configured topredominantly intercalate first, second, third, and fourth types ofcations (e.g., Na⁺, K⁺, Ca²⁺, and Mg²⁺). Optimization of removal ofdifferent types of cations may be accomplished by varying the thickness,porosity, and/or tortuosity within intercalation hosts.

While FIG. 6 depicts a single IDI device, in other embodiments more thanone IDI device may be utilized to further optimize the remove of certaintypes of cations. For example, first and second DI devices can beutilized such that the first IDI device is upstream, and the second IDIdevice is downstream. The first IDI device may be configured to haveintercalation hosts of two or more alternating layers (e.g., one or morelayers of a first host material configured to predominantly intercalatea first cation and one or more layers of a second host materialconfigured to predominantly intercalate a second cation). The second IDIdevice may be configured to have intercalation hosts of two or morealternating layers (e.g., one or more layers of a third host materialconfigured to predominantly intercalate a third cation and one or morelayers of a fourth host material configured to predominantly intercalatea fourth cation).

FIG. 7 depicts intercalative desalination (IDI) system 450 according toone embodiment. Inlet stream 452 of saline solution (e.g., seawater orbrackish water) is fed into valve 454. Valve 454 is configured to createfirst and second streams 456 and 458, which are fed into IDI system 450.IDI system 450 includes first and second intercalation hosts 460 and 462and anion exchange membrane 464. First and/or second intercalation hosts460 and/or 462 may be supported on first and/or second substrates,respectively. First compartment 466 is formed between firstintercalation host 460 and anion exchange membrane 464. Secondcompartment 468 is formed between second intercalation host 462 andanion exchange membrane 464. First stream 456 flows through firstcompartment 466 and second stream 458 flows through second compartment468.

One or both of first and second intercalation hosts 460 and 462 may beformed of a mixture or blend of two or more host materials. In oneembodiment, the mixture of blend may be of two different host materials.The first host material may be configured to predominately intercalatemonovalent cations. The second host material may be configured topredominately intercalate divalent cations. The mixture or blend maymixed or blended throughout the entire volume of first and/or secondintercalation hosts 460 and/or 462. In other embodiments, the mixture ofblend may occupy one or more layers of first and/or second intercalationhosts 460 and/or 462. The layers that are not occupied by the mixture orblend may be occupied by layers of the first or second host materials(or other types of host materials). The mixture or blend may be ahomogenous mixture or blend. The mixture or blend may have the sameamount of each of the types of host materials or may have differentamounts of each of the types of host materials.

As shown in FIG. 7 , first intercalation host 460 is substantially orpartially filled with cations and second intercalation host 462 issubstantially empty of cations. In one embodiment, first intercalationhost 460 includes monovalent cations 478 intercalated into the mixtureor blend of two or more host materials and divalent cations 480intercalated into the mixture or blend of two or more host materials.During operation of DI system 450, power source 482 applied currentthrough circuit 484 to generate an electric potential between firstintercalation host 460 and second intercalation host 462 such that firstintercalation host 460 has a positive charge and second intercalationhost 462 has a negative charge. As shown in FIG. 7 , monovalent anddivalent cations 478 and 480 are released from first intercalation host460 into first compartment 466 and monovalent and divalent cations 478and 480 from second compartment 468 intercalate into secondintercalation host 462, and monovalent and divalent anions 486 and 488migrate from second compartment 468 across anion exchange membrane 464into first compartment 466, thereby forming brine solution 490 in firstcompartment 466 and fresh solution 492 in second compartment 468.

Brine solution 490 is configured to flow through conduit 494 into valve496 and fresh solution 492 is configured to flow through conduit 498into valve 500. Valve 496 may be configured to separate brine solution490 into brine solution stream 502 and fresh solution stream 504. Brinesolution stream 502 flows into valve 510. Valve 500 may be configured toseparate fresh solution 492 into brine solution stream 506 and freshsolution stream 508. Brine solution stream 506 flows into valve 510.Fresh solution stream 508 flows into valve 512. Fresh solution stream504 flows into valve 512. Brine solution stream 514 exits valve 510.Fresh solution steam 516 exits valve 512.

Each of first and second intercalation hosts 460 and 462 may be formedof a mixture or blend of two or more types of host materials to optimizemonovalent or divalent intercalation for a specific application (e.g.,industrial brackish water desalination, home appliance water hardnessreduction, or water desalination for drinking water). The intercalationhosts of one or more embodiments (including the embodiments shown inFIGS. 5, 6, and 7 ) may include one or more structural enhancements suchas carbon nanotubes or the intercalation material may be coated withcarbon nanotubes.

One or more embodiments may be used to tailor the salt composition usingone or more desalination devices. For instance, a first IDI device (orother desalination device) may remove or add a first cation (e.g., Na⁺)to a target water stream, while a second IDI device may remove or add asecond cation (e.g., Ca²⁺) to the target water stream. The flow ratesand/or current (or voltage) to each IDI device may be controlledindependently to achieve a desired salt composition of the outlet targetwater stream (e.g., the outlet water stream simulates a flavor ofmineral water). In one embodiment, an intercalation host with lessselective cation intercalation may be employed in a first IDI device (orother desalination device), while a more selective intercalation hostmay be used in a second DI device for targeting a desired compositionwith a relatively high precision.

While exemplary embodiments are described above, it is not intended thatthese embodiments describe all possible forms encompassed by the claims.The words used in the specification are words of description rather thanlimitation, and it is understood that various changes can be madewithout departing from the spirit and scope of the disclosure. Aspreviously described, the features of various embodiments can becombined to form further embodiments of the invention that may not beexplicitly described or illustrated. While various embodiments couldhave been described as providing advantages or being preferred overother embodiments or prior art implementations with respect to one ormore desired characteristics, those of ordinary skill in the artrecognize that one or more features or characteristics can becompromised to achieve desired overall system attributes, which dependon the specific application and implementation. These attributes caninclude, but are not limited to cost, strength, durability, life cyclecost, marketability, appearance, packaging, size, serviceability,weight, manufacturability, ease of assembly, etc. As such, to the extentany embodiments are described as less desirable than other embodimentsor prior art implementations with respect to one or morecharacteristics, these embodiments are not outside the scope of thedisclosure and can be desirable for particular applications.

What is claimed is:
 1. A system for removing ions from a solution, thesystem comprising: an upstream device including first and secondupstream intercalation hosts and an upstream anion exchange membrane,the upstream device including a first upstream compartment extendingbetween the first upstream intercalation host and the upstream anionexchange membrane, the upstream device including a second upstreamcompartment extending between the second upstream intercalation host andthe upstream anion exchange membrane, the first and/or second upstreamintercalation hosts including a first intercalation material configuredto predominately intercalate a first type of cations from a solutionflowing through the first and/or second upstream compartments,respectively; and a downstream device including first and seconddownstream intercalation hosts and a downstream anion exchange membrane,the downstream device including a first downstream compartment extendingbetween the first downstream intercalation host and the downstream anionexchange membrane, the downstream device including a second downstreamcompartment extending between the second downstream intercalation hostand the downstream anion exchange membrane, the first and/or seconddownstream intercalation hosts including a second intercalation materialconfigured to predominately intercalate a second type of cations fromthe solution flowing through the first and/or second downstreamcompartments, respectively, the first and second types of cations beingdifferent.
 2. The system of claim 1, wherein the first type of cationsis monovalent cations or divalent cations, and the second type ofcations is the other of monovalent cations and divalent cations.
 3. Thesystem of claim 1, wherein the first type of cations is monovalentcations and second type of cations is divalent cations.
 4. The system ofclaim 1, wherein a first percentage of the first type of cationsintercalated to the total cations intercalated based on a total capacityof the first intercalation material is greater than 50%.
 5. The systemof claim 1, wherein a second percentage of the second type of cationsintercalated to the total cations intercalated based on a total capacityof the second intercalation material is greater than 50%.
 6. The systemof claim 1, wherein the first intercalation material is a first Prussianblue analogue compound, the second intercalation material is a secondPrussian blue analogue compound, and the first Prussian blue analoguecompound is different than the second Prussian blue analogue compound.7. The system of claim 6, wherein the first and/or second Prussian blueanalogue compounds are first and/or second binary or ternary transitionmetal Prussian blue analogue compounds.
 8. A device for removing ionsfrom a solution, the device comprising: first and second intercalationhosts; an anion exchange membrane; a first compartment extending betweenthe first intercalation host and the anion exchange membrane; and asecond compartment extending between the second intercalation host andthe anion exchange membrane, the first intercalation host including afirst surface adjacent to the first compartment and a second surfaceopposing the first surface, the second intercalation host including afirst surface adjacent to the second compartment and a second surfaceopposing the first surface, a number of layers extending between thefirst and second surfaces of the first and/or second intercalation host,at least one of the number of layers including a first intercalationmaterial, at least another of the number of layers including a secondintercalation material, and the first and second intercalation materialsare different.
 9. The device of claim 8, wherein the at least one of thenumber of layers including the first intercalation material includes thefirst surface of the first and/or second compartments, and the at leastanother of the number of layers including the second intercalationmaterial contacts the second surface of the first and/or secondcompartments.
 10. The device of claim 8, wherein the number of layersextending between the first and second surfaces of the first and/orsecond intercalation hosts include first, second, third, and fourthlayers, the first, second, third, and fourth layers alternating betweenincluding the first intercalation material and the second intercalationmaterial.
 11. The device of claim 8, wherein the first intercalationmaterial is configured to predominately intercalate a first type ofcations and the second intercalation material is configured topredominately intercalate a second type of cations.
 12. The device ofclaim 11, wherein the first type of cations is monovalent cations ordivalent cations, and the second type of cations is the other ofmonovalent cations and divalent cations.
 13. The device of claim 11,wherein a percentage of the first type of cations intercalated to thetotal cations intercalated based on a total capacity of the firstintercalation material is greater than 50%, and a second percentage ofthe second type of cations intercalated to the total cationsintercalated based on a total capacity of the second intercalationmaterial is greater than 50%.
 14. The device of claim 11, wherein thefirst intercalation material is a first Prussian blue analogue compound,the second intercalation material is a second Prussian blue analoguecompound, and the first Prussian blue analogue compound is differentthan the second Prussian blue analogue compound.
 15. The device of claim14, wherein the first or second intercalation material has a first orsecond intercalation material concentration gradient.
 16. A device forremoving ions from a solution, the device comprising: first and secondintercalation hosts; an anion exchange membrane; a first compartmentextending between the first intercalation host and the anion exchangemembrane; and a second compartment extending between the secondintercalation host and the anion exchange membrane, the first and/orsecond intercalation hosts including a mixture of first and secondintercalation materials, and the first and second intercalationmaterials are different.
 17. The device of claim 16, wherein the firstintercalation material is configured to predominately intercalate afirst type of cations and the second intercalation material isconfigured to predominately intercalate a second type of cations. 18.The device of claim 17, wherein the first type of cations is monovalentcations or divalent cations, and the second type of cations is the otherof monovalent cations and divalent cations.
 19. The device of claim 17,wherein a percentage of the first type of cations intercalated to thetotal cations intercalated based on a total capacity of the firstintercalation material is greater than 50%, and a second percentage ofthe second type of cations intercalated to the total cationsintercalated based on a total capacity of the second intercalationmaterial is greater than 50%.
 20. The device of claim 17, wherein thefirst intercalation material is a first Prussian blue analogue compound,the second intercalation material is a second Prussian blue analoguecompound, and the first Prussian blue analogue compound is differentthan the second Prussian blue analogue compound.